透视日本历史（我的翻译处女作）

水中花

　　日本的整部历史充斥着敌对家族间为支配该岛国而引发的内讧。尽管公元300年就有了天皇，大部分实权却总是掌握在其中某个家族手中。最强有力的家族的首脑被冠之以“将军”名号，意为最高统帅。受这些敌对宗族驱遣的侍忠贞不渝地遵守武士的行为准则——武士道。他们的准则不仅强调忠于职守，更强调超越一切外物、乃至生命本身的坚忍克己的荣誉感。这种武士道后来以各种表现形式成为日本文化的重要特征。日本早期历史的转折点也许是13世纪时对蒙古两次入侵的抗击。相比有效的作战，其实这更应归功于自然力，因为蒙古侵略军两次入侵都败于毁灭性的台风；日本人由此被神佑国土的观念所鼓舞，称这些台风为“神风”。

　　日本历史早期大部分宗教、文化和行政架构都起源于中国。日本对中国人拒绝给予平等待遇很不满，并担心高丽成为大陆入侵者的跳板，所以变得越来越内敛。除了葡萄牙人首次开通赴日本的航路后那段短暂开放的时期外，它对外几乎完全闭关直到1853年美国海军准将佩里以武力强迫日本开放贸易往来。日本被唤醒了。近代化使它迅速成为亚洲第一个工业化国家，但也滋长了日本的帝国主义贪欲。他们开始拓殖韩国和中国的部分地区为己所用，并在1905年击溃沙俄的太平洋舰队，震惊了世界。实力的增长导致的过度自信引导他们参加第二次世界大战并与美国为敌。1945年日本最终被迫接受无条件投降，这是日本历史上第二个转折点，由此日本走向非军事化和民主化。但是，战后日本的恢复相当快，今天它是世界主要经济强国之一。

　　不过我们今天所知的日本人并非原住民。因为在史前时代世界各地都有寻路来到日本列岛的土著捕猎、采食者。这些人因考古遗址发现的粘土质陶器的形制而得名“绳纹人”。相信这些人就是日本一个少数民族“阿伊努人”的远祖，现在生活在日本列岛北部，主要为北海道。然而公元前300年的考古证物发生了有别于这些捕猎、采食者文化的戏剧性的转变。估计有新一波的高丽移民登上了自冰川时期起就与大陆隔绝的日本列岛。从农耕、建筑、冶金、手工业到文化、宗教的所有一切都开始成型，它们反映出中国北部及韩国的渊源，并混杂了南太平洋的元素。这一时期在日本历史上称为弥生时期，一直延续到公元250年。就在这一时期的公元57年，日本第一次被外界资料所记述。中国的资料把日本描述为一个部落联盟的集合体，它具有一定水平的行省组织、赋税制度，不同群体间有领主和封臣关系，信奉一种称为“神道教”的宗教。可是这些或者任何暗示高丽来源的联系，却和日本人认为他们肇基于公元前660年的统一国家的传统相矛盾。同样后来的移民究竟在多大程度上融入了本土绳纹文化也是日本早期历史的另一个争议点。

　　无论如何，从公元300年开始的时期，日本历史的脉络变得清晰起来。这个时期因家族统治者入葬之坟冢而得名“古坟时期”。宣称为神裔的大和部族，开创了今天继续占据着皇位的天皇世代。这个部族也在公元500年建立了大和国，其统治者通过联合或镇压其它部族统治者获得土地，大和由此成为全日本的同义词。大和国位于今天日本南部中央区域。日本和大陆不断扩大的交流也发生在此时：随着佛教的传入，日本的政体和文化模式也开始立足于传入的中国儒家学说，包括书面汉文的采用。日本统治者还开始在朝鲜的南端建立大陆的立足点。他们寻求中国朝廷的册封，而中国人也承认日本人对朝鲜这些地区的控制。在古坟时期末期的公元587年，苏我部设法安插家族成员之一即大和国的皇位。此时日本人也开始声言和中国人的平等地位。日本天皇就在一份官方信函中向中国皇帝致以如下的问候：“日升之国的天子致日落之国的天子。”从此，日本开始以“日本”自谓，意为太阳的来源或日升之地，这是日本西方化名字的由来。这种变化令中国人大为不满，可是中国的势力继续发挥着对日本文化和基础结构的巨大影响，苏我部也继续以这些方针作为他们国家的模式。随着来自高丽的影响逐渐消失，标志着此时日本已不再接受从属于大陆强权的地位。在中国入侵的威胁下，中大兄皇子和中臣镰足（后来因其对皇室的功勋被赐姓藤原），从苏我部手中夺回支配权。他们对法律和土地所有权制定了广泛的改革以获得对日本更有力的控制，把国家改组为道从而削弱了宗族及世袭领主的势力。日本在此期间经历了数位女皇。但770年以后，皇位仅限于男性继承。

　　公元710年首都迁至奈良城，奈良时期开始。在日本文化里，天皇死后迁都是惯例，因为人们相信死亡会污染旧都。奈良的风格模仿中国唐朝首都长安。奈良成为一座繁华的都会及商业中心，而道一级的地方却开始衰落。作为回应地方土地管理部门接管了中央的土地控制权，普遍兵役制开始滞后，更有利于地方民团的发展。公元794年首都又迁到奈良以北大约26公里的平安，以重建朝廷的控制，引领着平安时代的到来。11世纪末此城改名“京都”（意为首都），直到这时日本才开始编纂自己的官方史书以及其它许多纪念碑文。佛教也正式成为国教。在此期间，日本人继续对内地民众的征服，桓武天皇被任命为将军以完成此大业，到公元801年已经完全控制了日本的主岛—本州。皇位继承得到了保障，可实权却大都旁落到某个贵族家庭中。桓武天皇死后藤原家族执掌了大权。随着中国唐朝的衰落，中国风格的中央集权也变得不受欢迎。伴随公元838年最后一次官方遣唐使的结束，日本变得内敛。尽管此时权力斗争频仍，日本的文明之花绽放依旧。日本人书写依赖的中国汉字系统得到两种表音字母的补充，称平假名和片假名，给予口头日语以书面形式。这也为宫廷侍女打开了此前只属于受过汉字系统书写教育的男性的文学创作的大门。这一时期的著名作品有《源氏物語》（源氏的故事）、《枕の草子》（枕书）。

　　同样由于日本不断成长的离心性，称为“侍”的武装阶层崛起了，他们遵守武士道。这些侍成为道及地方掌权者的支柱，甚至民间和宗教机构也独立控制私人的侍护卫队来自保，自然出现了几个显赫的家族。从公元8世纪到12世纪的这段时间里，藤原、平、源家族为了控制日本、控制对方的权力而相互竞争。到1185年源氏家族脱颖而出成为三家中的最强者，标志着以他们在日本本岛北部、现代东京西南的总部镰仓命名的镰仓时代的开始。这一时期的此后700年，名义上立足京都的天皇实质上只是行使仪式职能的傀儡。而民政、军事、司法职能为武士阶层所控制，最强大的武士家族就是实际统治者，为首的称之为大将军。源氏未能掌权多久，大权就在1199年旁落到平氏的分支北条家族。在后者治下军人政体幕府变得无效，即便将军的封号也仅仅是个傀儡而已。这个头衔传到许多不同人头上，包括藤原家族成员、甚至皇子。1221年理应是皇室正式保护者的北条家族为重掌大权发动了针对他们的战争。但是他们设法改革了政体，允许其它军事头目在镰仓行使司法权和立法权，由北条氏主持由这些领主组成的议会。军法成文化为“貞永”律，日本处于官方戒严之下。

　　13世纪晚期，在中国建立元朝的蒙古人把他们的注意力投向日本。它要求日本纳贡却遭到严词拒绝。1274年忽必烈大汗组织了600艘战舰，混杂了蒙古、中国、韩国血统的23000人的部队，以及攻城器械、早期火箭炮，发动了对日本的侵略。战斗中这些部队采用密集的骑兵编队，这是始终遵循死板的“光荣一战”武士道的侍们完全不适应的。日本人作战勇敢但实在不能抵御这样一支采用陌生战法的大型部队。第一天战后，一场台风侵袭并灭减了在船上扎营的蒙古军队，这实在是个奇迹。几年后蒙古人发动了第二次入侵，这次战斗持续了几个星期，因为日本人不再对外敌固守他们那套一战成仁的教条了。直到又一次台风袭来，摧毁了蒙古人的舰队。神道教巫师把蒙古人的失败归结于台风并指明其神圣品质。但抗蒙战争极大消耗了经济，没有足够的赏金颁发给保卫日本有功的家族，终于爆发了内战。最终後醍醐天皇战胜先前的北条政府，企图复兴皇室权威和儒家之道。但1336年却又败给了足利家族。然而後醍醐逃到首都并在南部成立了分裂的皇室朝廷，而足利家族从他们的对手中选人就职做了天皇。两个天皇朝廷并存的局面持续了50年。

　　足利家族开启了室町时代。足利将军的幕府成为佛教禅宗的资助者，日本的经济文化得到了发展，并建立了和中国明朝的贸易关系。但到了16世纪中叶，室町政权对日本失去了控制。称为“大名”的道首对本地区施加控制后开始相互征战，这就是有名的“战国时代”或内战时期。就在此时，第一批葡萄牙商人和传教士抵达了日本，他们将火器和基督教传入日本。尽管有佛教徒的反对，多数关西军阀还是欢迎基督教，藉此向葡萄牙人购买军用物资。织田信长从道首中脱颖而出，推翻了室町政权，使日本的统一迈进了一大步。但在1582年织田被刺杀，继承他的豊臣秀吉最终得以重新统一了整个日本。为了取得绝对控制，他拆毁了内战时期国内到处建立起来的许多城堡，禁止武士阶层务农，并强行将他们迁移入城堡市镇。他把基督教徒看作统一进程的威胁，又在1587年开始驱逐基督教传教士。此外禁止皈依基督，随着1597年对26名圣方济会士的警告性处决，迫害加深到了极点。1592年，豊臣秀吉把目光瞄准中国。他侵入韩国并在几周内占领了汉城，可在一年后又被中韩联军赶回去了。他再次发动了战争，直到1598年日军被迫完全撤离韩国。此后，他在当年去世，接替他的是德川家康。

　　1600年德川家康在江户（现代的东京）建立了稳固的军政权力，并被天皇任命为将军。家康能够以满足各大名需要的方式重新分配他获得的财富，但同时制定了一个惯例，要求他们必须每隔一年到江户城居住。这对大名来说意味着庞大的财政负担，缓和了他们在家中的力量。家康也促成了和英国人、荷兰人的贸易，但在其治下继续压制、迫害基督徒。他在取缔对手方面是如此成功，使得其继承者在他死后的250年里再也没有厉害的对手可应付。武士阶层开始从武术向欣赏、实践日本美术分化。1633年德川幕府制定了禁止日本人到海外旅行的孤立主义政策，到1639年几乎关闭了日本接收外来影响和贸易的大门，只有长崎港除外。外国书籍遭禁，允许通过长崎进行的贸易极其受限，仅限于和中国、荷兰的小宗贸易。尽管与世隔绝，日本的国内贸易和文化却活跃起来，新的艺术形式如歌舞伎、浮世绘在市民中间得到发展。日本社会也更牢固地禁锢在等级体系中，社会各阶层不允许相互转换。侍阶层处在首位，接下来是农民、工匠、商人，及以底层的穢多（贱民）阶层。即便德川政权维持了几个世纪的稳定还是走向衰弱，伴随着天灾导致的财政状况恶化及社会动荡。到了18世纪晚期，外国强权希望建立贸易的外部压力随着1854年美国海军的佩里准将的再次到来发展到顶点，后者强行扣开了日本的国际贸易。反政府情绪持续高涨，民众甚至保守派都认识到西方在科学和军事革新上的优势。因而1867年德川政权垮台，皇权又回到明治天皇掌控之下。这个时代引领着明治对日本的重塑和近代化进程。

　　等级体系被废除，民主政府建立起来，但又服务于天皇。为了弥合日本和西洋各国间的鸿沟，日本人以旺盛的精力从事以西方为模板的经济、军事、教育改革，所取的榜样都是当时某个领域最优秀的，比如以普鲁士作为陆军的模板和以英国作为海军的范例。对天皇的崇拜日益作为国家的核心来强调。完成改造后，日本再次把注意力投向大陆。日本和中国在韩国的利益冲突导致了1894年的日清战争，此间中国被迫割让台湾给日本。事实上是西方的干涉迫使日本归还了部分被占领土，所以日本继续加强军事力量的发展。之后的1904年，它与沙俄的冲突从韩国发展到满洲。日本通过一次令人眩目的胜利击败了沙俄太平洋舰队，从俄国人手上获得新的疆域，最终获得了部分国际尊重。1910年，日本使韩国完全从属化。这些早期的军事成就助长了日本的帝国主义贪欲和民族主义思潮。

　　在第一次世界大战中日本参加了协约国集团，在打击德国在东亚的殖民势力中扮演了次要角色，却在国际联盟中以主要的一方出现。可是日本关于修改种族平等条款的提案却被否决，更被加以不准日本人移民美国的禁令。这助长了日本的反西方情绪。一战后时期，由于世界性经济危机的影响导致日本经济遭受重创，1923年的关东大地震使问题更加棘手。通过暗杀政敌、安插军职人员到政府岗位—包括最高的内阁总理大臣职位，军人开始执掌政府。1931年日本占领了满洲，在新宣布独立的国家满洲国设置了一个傀儡政权，并开始轰炸中国的上海以保护日本侨民免受反日运动威胁。1933年，因其在中国的举动而受到严厉谴责的日本退出了国联。到1937年，日本已经或多或少地控制了中国的整个沿海，对中国人民犯下了严重的战争罪行，特别是在中国首都南京陷落时。但中国政府从未屈服，战争也并入了第二次世界大战。日本在轴心国集团一方，并开始扩展入亚洲大陆。西方盟国为延缓日本的前进步伐对其实施了石油禁运，但这却导致日本1941年在珍珠港倾其全力对美国发动了进攻。最初日本人非常成功，日军占领了从印度边境到太平洋岛屿的广大领土。但依靠美国人，最终在1945年，日本在战争中走向全面失败。日本人在复活了的武士道“杀身成仁”精神驱动之下寸土必争，发动自杀性冲锋。当两颗原子弹分别投在广岛和长崎并在一瞬间摧毁了这两座城市时，他们被迫承认无可挽回的最终失败，无条件投降。

　　第二次世界大战以后，日本毁坏殆尽。美国人摧毁了除京都以外的几乎所有都市中心。日本处于麦克阿瑟将军的军事占领之下，一直延续到1952年。日本也丧失了自1894年以来取得的所有领土，还把南库页岛输给了苏联。冲绳群岛直到1972年才回归日本。日本实行非军事化并实施了一部永远禁止发动战争的宪法。天皇崇拜被废止，他的权力缩小到一个象征。但是美国扶植日本重建，到美国人结束占领时，日本又一次以新兴工业国的姿态出现。日本被允许重建军备但仅用于自卫。西方盟国特别是美国人用它作为扼制亚洲大陆共产主义蔓延的堡垒。韩战以后日本经济繁荣起来，在工业部门特别是汽车领域取得举足轻重的地位。但是1973年的石油危机以后他们开始多元化发展，并把重点转投到高科技领域，在机器人技术和电子消费品的研发方面进展颇丰。

ljx20264

顶起来

小陆

对明治维新及以后的日本历史感兴趣，战国么，就像当年明月说的，县长打村长，实在是摆不上台面

不动明王

1：日本战国时代的很多战例都被选入西方军校的教材中，从战争学角度看，县长和村长打的很精彩
2：从人道主义看，县长打村长远比主席打总统死的人要少，在停尸间里比人多，这类人是典型的非人心态，满脑子都是纳粹的渣滓和唯物史观的残臭

沉吟至今

楼主翻译的，太牛了 [s:16]

水中花

引用第3楼不动明王于2009-09-13 21:08发表的  :
1：日本战国时代的很多战例都被选入西方军校的教材中，从战争学角度看，县长和村长打的很精彩
2：从人道主义看，县长打村长远比主席打总统死的人要少，在停尸间里比人多，这类人是典型的非人心态，满脑子都是纳粹的渣滓和唯物史观的残臭

其实西方人对东亚各国的了解主要还是局限于日本，特别是日本战国时代。当时主要是为了对日作战的需要而开始研究日本历史，特别是军事历史。后来的黑泽明投其所好，拍了不少以战国时代为背景的影片，在国际上获得了大奖。

而对于中国历史及文化，西方人实际上是zenzen wakaranayi yo。

水中花

引用第4楼全民最大于2009-09-13 21:20发表的  :
楼主翻译的，太牛了 [s:16]

我04年失业期间穷极无聊的作品，按照现在的眼光看翻得真是很粗糙，有空再润色一下，也许会更好

宪兵司令

怪不得中国古装电影在国际上没有市场。 [s:2]

水中花

引用第7楼宪兵司令于2009-09-14 12:39发表的  :
怪不得中国古装电影在国际上没有市场。 [s:2]

现在这种情况已经开始改变了，毕竟论文化和历史底蕴日本和中国没法比，何况中国现在也算有钱了、舍得花钱拍大戏了

水中花

Throughout its history Japan had experienced internal conflict as rival clans vied for control of the Island nation. Despite the existence of an Emperor beginning in 300 A.D. the real power largely were held in one of these clans. The head of most the powerful of the clans would be given the title "Shogun", meaning generalissimo. These rival clans had the Samurai at their disposal, these unswervingly loyal men followed the "Bushido", the way of the Warrior. Their code not only stressed loyalty and obedience to authority, but a stoic sense of honor that was above all else even life itself. This warrior code was to become the central character of Japanese culture in one form or another. Perhaps the most pivotal moment in Japan's early history was their defense against two Mongol invasions during the 13th century A.D. It owed more to the forces of nature then military prowess, but infused the Japanese with the idea that there exists a divine protection for their land, as both invasions were defeated by typhoons that destroyed the invading Mongol Armies. The typhoons would be called "Kamikaze" or divine wind.

Japan in its early history also derived much of it religious, cultural and governmental framework from China. Resentful of being spurned from being treated as equals by the Chinese, and worried of Korea as a staging ground for invasion from the mainland, Japan had become more and more inward looking. Other then a brief period of openness when the Portuguese first found their way to Japan. It would all but close its borders to outsiders until 1853 A.D. when Commodore Perry of the U.S. navy forced Japan to open trade relations. This was a wakeup call for Japan. It quickly modernized to become Asia's first industrialized nation. However, this also wetted Japan's imperialistic appetites. They began carving out parts of China and Korea for themselves and shocked the world when they defeated the Russian pacific fleet in 1905 A.D. Their growing power also lead to over-confidence leading to their participation in the Second World War against the U.S.A. This would be another pivotal moment in Japan's history when Japan was eventually forced to accept unconditional surrender in 1945 A.D. This lead to the demilitarization and democratizing of Japan. However, after the war, Japan quickly recovered. Today they are a major economic power in the world.

The Japanese people we know today however were not the original inhabitants. As in places all around the world, there were indigenous hunter-gatherers that had made its way to the Island of Japan in prehistoric times. These people were called the "Jomon" after the patterns found on the clay pottery found in archeological sites. These people are believed to be the distant ancestors of an ethnic minority in Japan called the "Ainu" that now inhabit the Northern Islands of Japan, mainly in Hokkaido. by 300 B.C. however a dramatic shift in the archeological evidence took place from these hunter-gatherer culture. It is speculated a new wave of immigrants from Korea arrived onto the Japanese islands that had been locked off from the mainland since the ice age. Everything from farming, architecture, metalwork, manufactured goods to culture and religions that reflect origins from Northern China and Korea mixed with some southern pacific elements began to emerge. This period is called the Yayoi period in Japanese history. It lasted until 250 A.D. It is during this time in 57 A.D. that Japan was first described by outside sources. Chinese sources described Japan as a collection of tribal communities that had some level of provincial organization, taxation, had master and vassal relationships between different groups, and worshipped a religion called Shinto. This or any connections that implied a Korean derivation, however contradicts Japanese traditions that saw their foundation as a unified state in 660 B.C. Also how much these later immigrants mixed with the indigenous Jomon culture is another controversial point in Japan's early history.

Regardless, the period from 300 A.D. and on, Japanese history is less uncertain. This period is called the Kofun period named after burial mounds that clan rulers were buried in. The Yamato clan claiming divine descent began the imperial dynasty that continues to occupy the thrown today. This clan would also establish the Yamato State by 500 A.D., which became synonymous with all of Japan as its rulers allied or suppressed other clan rulers and acquired lands. The Yamato State was centered at the southern region of today's Japan. Greater exchange between Japan and the mainland also occurred during this time, with the introduction of Buddhism, and government and cultural models based on Chinese Confucianism into Japan, including the adoption of the Chinese written language. Japanese rulers also began to establish a toehold on the continent at the southern tip of Korea. They sought confirmation of royal titles with the Chinese, and in turn the Chinese recognized Japanese control over these parts of Korea. Near the end of the Kofun period in 587 A.D. the Soga clan managed to install one of their own as Emperor within the Yamato State. The Japanese also began to assert themselves on equal footing with the Chinese at this time. The Japanese Emperor addressed an official correspondence to the Chinese Emperor with the greetings, "From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun." It was at this time that Japan began to refer to itself by the name "Nihon", which means the sun source or from which the sun rises, from which the westernized named Japan is derived from. This move was greatly resented by the Chinese. Chinese influence however still continued to play a large influence on Japanese culture and infrastructure, and the Soga continued to model their nation within those guidelines. While influences by way of Korea was extinguished. It would however mark the time when Japan no longer accepted a subordinate position to the mainland powers. With threats of a Chinese invasion, Prince Naka and Nakatomi Kamatari (later to be awarded the surname Fujiwara for his service to the imperial family), seized control from the Soga clan in 645 A.D. They instituted wide reforms in law and land ownership, to gain greater control over Japan, and break the power of clan and hereditary landowners and reorganized the country into provinces. Japan saw several Empresses during this time but from 770 A.D. royal succession was restricted to males henceforth.

In 710 A.D. the Nara period began when the capitol was moved to the city of Nara. It was customary in Japanese culture to move the Capitol after the death of an emperor, as it was believed that the death polluted the old capitol. Nara was styled after the Chinese Tang dynasty capitol of Chang'an. Nara became a thriving urban and business center, however the provinces began to decline. In order to address this local administration of the lands began to take hold over central land control. Universal conscription began to fall out in favor of local militias. The Capitol was again moved to Heian in 794 A.D., some twenty-six kilometers north of Nara to re-establish Imperial control. Ushering in the Heian period. The city would be renamed Kyoto (meaning Capitol City) by the end of the 11th century A.D. It was at this time that Japan began to write its own official histories, as well as, many of its other literary monuments. Buddhism also became the official state religion. During this era, the Japanese continued its subjugation of the indigenous peoples of Japan, Emperor Kammu was appointed Shogun to accomplish this task and by 801 A.D. gained total control of the main Japanese isle of Honshu. While Imperial succession was ensured much of the actual power was held by one of the noble families. The Fujiwara clan was to take control after Kammu's death in 806 A.D. With the Tang dynasty in decline in China, Chinese style central authority also became disfavored, and Japan turned inwards with the last official mission to China in 838 A.D. Despite the power struggles during this time, Japanese culture was flowering. The Chinese Kanji system which Japanese writing had depended on began to be supplemented with two phonetic scripts called Katakana and Hiragana, which gave spoken Japanese a written form. This also opened the door to court women to produce literary works as previous only males had been educated to use the Chinese Kanji system of writing. Some famous works during this time was the "Genji Monogatari", or The Tale of Genji and "Makura no Soshi", or The Pillow Book.

The growing decentralized nature of Japan, also saw the rise of a military class called the Samurai, who followed the Bushido. These samurai became the mainstay of provincial and local power holders, even civil and religious institutions had independent control of private samurai guard units to protect themselves. Several clans naturally arose to prominence. The period between the 8th century A.D. until the 12th century A.D. saw the Fujiwara, the Taira and the Minomoto clan vying for control and power over Japan and over one another. By 1185 the Minamoto clan emerged as strongest of the three, signaling the Kamakura period, named after their headquarters in Kamakura in the northern part of Japan's main island, south-west of modern Tokyo. This period essentially made official for the next 700 years where the Emperors based in Kyoto were no more then figureheads relegated to ceremonial functions. While civil, military, and judicial functions being controlled by the Samurai class, with the most powerful samurai clan being the de factor ruler. The head of which was given the title Shogun. The Minamoto did not continue to hold power for long, and by 1199 A.D. lost power to the Hojo Clan which was a branch of the Taira Clan. Under the Hojo clan the military governing body known as the bakufu in turn also became ineffectual making the Shogun title a mere figurehead also. The title was passed to many different people including members of the Fujiwara clan or even to Imperial Princes. Until in 1221 A.D. the Hojo clan that was supposed to be the official protector of the Imperial family went to war against them to regain power. However they managed to reform the governing body to allow other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative power at Kamakura with the Hojo presiding over a council of these lords. Military law was codified known as the "Joei" code and Japan became under official martial law.

In the late 13th century A.D. the Mongols who had established the Yuen Dynasty in China turned its attention towards Japan. It had demanded tribute from Japan but was steadfastly refused. The Yuen Emperor Kublai Khan ordered an invasion of Japan in 1274 A.D. consisting of 600 ships, and a force of 23000 troops of mixed Mongol, Chinese and Korean origins, along with siege engines and early rocket artillery. In battle these troops fought in close cavalry formations for which the Samurai were totally unaccustomed to. Who had always followed the strict Bushido code of honored single combat. The Japanese fought bravely but couldn't really defend themselves against this massive force fighting in a way alien to them. It was a miracle that after the first day of fighting that the typhoon swept in, and decimated the Mongol army camped aboard their ships. Seven years later the Mongols would attempt a second invasion, this time fighting lasted for seven weeks as the Japanese no longer stuck to their practice of single combat against these foreigners. Until again a typhoon struck, and destroyed the Mongol fleet. The Shinto priests attributed the Mongols defeat to the typhoon and pronounced its divine nature. But the war against with Mongols had cost a lot economically. There were not enough rewards to go around to the clans that helped contributed to the defense of Japan. Civil war eventually broke out. The Emperor Go-Daigo eventually emerged victorious over the previous Hojo government intent on reviving imperial authority and Confucian practices. But in turn was defeated by the Ashikaga clan in 1336 A.D. However Go-Daigo would flee the capitol establishing a separate Imperial court south, while Ashikaga clan installed their choice for emperor from a rival line. This duel existence of Imperial courts was to last for over the next 50 years.

The Ashikaga clan ushered in the Muromachi period. The Ashikaga Shogunate becomes patrons of Zen Buddhism, and Japan develops economically and culturally. Trade with the Ming dynasty Chinese was established. However by the middle of the 16th century A.D. the Muromachi government lost control of Japan. Again provincial lords called "Daimyo" who had exerted the actual control over the regions began to fight with each other in what became known as the "Sengoku Jidai" or Age of the Civil Wars. It was also at this time, in 1542 A.D. that the first Portuguese traders and missionaries arrived in Japan. They introduced firearms and Christianity to Japan. Despite Buddhist oppositions, most of the western warlords welcomed Christianity in order that they could trade for military goods with the Portuguese. Oda Nobunaga emerged amongst the provincial warlord to overthrow the Muromachi government and made big strides in reunifying Japan. However in 1582 A.D. Nobunaga was assassinated. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who finally managed to completely reunify Japan, succeeded him. In order to gain absolute control, he destroyed many castles that had been built around the country during the Age of Civil Wars, and forbade the Samurai class from farming, and forced them to move into castle towns. Seeing Christians as a threat to his reunification process, he also began to expel Christians missionaries in 1587 A.D. Further conversions to Christianity were forbidden and the persecution intensified culminating with the execution of 26 Franciscans in 1597 A.D. as a warning. In 1592 A.D. Hideyoshi took aim at China. He invaded Korea and captured Seoul within a few weeks but was pushed back by Chinese and Korean forces a year later. He would continue to wage his war until 1598 A.D. when Japanese forces were forced to evacuate from Korea completely. He would die later that year to be succeeded by Tokugawa Ieyasu.

Tokugawa Ieyasu establishes firm political and military power in 1600 A.D. seated in Edo (in modern day Tokyo) and appointed Shogun in 1603 A.D. by the emperor. Ieyasu was able to redistribute the wealth he acquired in a way as to satisfy the Daimyos but also instituted a practice that required them to spend every other year at Edo. Which meant a huge financial burden for the Daimyos and moderated their power at home. Ieyasu also promoted trade with the English and the Dutch. However he continued the persecution and suppression of Christianity within his realm. He was so successful in quashing his rivals that after his death his successors had no serious rivals to face for the next 250 years. The samurai class began to branch out from martial arts to the appreciation and practice of the finer Japanese arts. In 1633 A.D. Shogun Iemitsu instituted an isolationist policy and forbade Japanese from travelling abroad, and by 1639 A.D. all but closed off Japan to foreign influence and trade with the exception of the port of Nagasaki. Foreign books were banned and the trade allowed through Nagasaki was extremely limited and restricted to minor trade with China and the Dutch. Despite the isolation Japan's domestic trade and culture flourished and new forms of Art like Kabuki and Ukiyo-e developed among the commoners. Japanese society also became more firmly entrenched in a caste system where social classes were not allowed to change from one to the other. The Samurai class was at the top, followed by peasants, artisans and merchants and the outcast class known as the "eta" at the bottom. Even though the Tokugawa government remained stable for centuries it had also become weakened. Combined with natural disasters that led to worsening financial conditions and social unrest. By the end of the 18th century A.D. however external pressures from foreign powers wishing to establish trade culminated with the second arrival of Commodore Perry in 1854 A.D. of the U.S. navy who finally forced open Japan to international trade. Anti-government sentiments continued to grow and people even the conservatives eventually recognizing the advantages of western science and military innovations. Thus in 1867 A.D. the Tokugawa government fell and Imperial power was restored under Emperor Meiji. This period ushered in the Meiji restoration and the modernization of Japan.

The caste system was abolished, and a democratic government was established but served under the Emperor. Economic, military and educational reforms were vigorously pursued and structured after western models to close the gap between Japan and western nations. Taking what were at the time the best western models in each area at the time. For example using Prussia as a model for their military and Britain for their navy. Emperor worship was also increasingly emphasized to bring focus to the nation. When the transformation was complete, Japan again turned its attention on to the mainland. Conflicting interests in Korea between Japan and China lead to the Sino-Japanese War in 1894 A.D. where China was forced to ceed Taiwan over to the Japanese. Western intervention had actually forced Japan to return some captured territory, so Japan continued to intensify military development. Then in 1904 A.D. conflicts with Russia developed over Korea and Manchuria. In a stunning victory, Japan defeated the Russian's pacific fleet gaining new territory over the Russian and finally gained some international respect. In 1910 A.D. Japan went on to annexed Korea completely. These early military successes fueled Japan's imperialistic appetite and nationalism.

In the First World War Japan joined with the allied powers and played a minor role in fighting German colonial forces in East Asia, but emerged as a major player in the League of Nations. However Japan's proposal to amend a racial equality clause was rejected with the addition of an immigration ban against Japanese to the U.S. This fueled anti-western sentiments in Japan. The period after World War One, saw Japan's economic condition suffer as a result of the world wide economic depression, and the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 A.D. added to the problem. The military began to take control of the government by assassinating political enemies and installing military personnel into government posts, including the top civil government prime ministerial position. In 1931 A.D. Japan seized control of Manchuria and installed a puppet government over a newly declared independent state of Manchukuo, and began bombing Shanghai, China to protect Japanese residents from anti-Japanese movements. In 1933 A.D. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after it was harshly criticize for its actions in China. By 1937 A.D. more or less completely occupied the Chinese coast and committed serious war atrocities on the Chinese population especially during the fall of the Chinese Capitol of Nanking. However the Chinese government never surrendered and the war melded into the Second World War. Japan sided with the Axis powers and began to expand into the Asian mainland. The western allies imposed an oil embargo on Japan to stall Japan's advance. But this lead Japan to make an all out attack on the U.S. in 1941 A.D. at Pearl Harbor. Initially a great success for the Japanese. The Japanese Army would occupy territory from the borders of India to the Pacific Islands. The war would however eventually lead to Japan's defeat by the hands of the Americans in 1945 A.D The Japanese fought every inch of the way spurred on by a revived Bushido code of death before dishonor. They were finallyforced to face unavoidable defeat and unconditional surrender when two atomic bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima annihilated these two cities in an instant.

After the Second World War, Japan was devastated. The American, with the exception of Kyoto destroyed almost all of Japan's major urban centers. Japan was placed under military occupation by General MacArthur, this was to last until 1952 A.D. Japan had also lost all territory it had acquired since 1894 A.D. and lost the Kuriles to the Soviet Union. Okinawa was not returned to Japan until 1972 A.D. The Japanese were demilitarized and a new constitution forbidding them from ever waging war was imposed. Emperor worship was abolished, and his power was reduced to that of a figurehead. However the Americans helped Japan to rebuild, and when the American occupation was over, Japan emerged as a thriving industrial nation once again. Japan was allowed to re-establish a military but only for self-defense. The Western allies especially the Americans used it as a base to contain the spread of Communism on the Asian mainland. After the Korean War Japan's economy flourished, gaining significant grounds in the industrial sectors especially in the area of automobiles. However after 1973 oil crisis they branched out and refocused into the world of High Tech, developing many advances in robotics and consumer electronics.